sociologically what term best applies to a group

The Nature of Groups

A social group is ii or more humans who interact with ane another, share similar characteristics, and collectively take a sense of unity.

Learning Objectives

Contrast the social cohesion-based concept of a social grouping with the social identity concept

Central Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• A social group exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a simple drove or amass of individuals.
• Social cohesion can exist formed through shared interests, values, representations, ethnic or social groundwork, and kinship ties, among other factors.
• The social identity arroyo posits that the necessary and sufficient conditions for the formation of social groups is the awareness that an individual belongs and is recognized as a member of a group.
• The social identity approach posits that the necessary and sufficient conditions for the formation of social groups is the awareness that the individual belongs and is recognized equally a fellow member of a group.

Key Terms

• social grouping: A collection of humans or animals that share certain characteristics, interact with 1 some other, accept expectations and obligations every bit members of the group, and share a common identity.
• The social identity approach: Posits that the necessary and sufficient condition for the germination of social groups is sensation of a common category membership.
• The social cohesion arroyo: More than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals, such every bit people waiting at a bus end, or people waiting in a line.

In the social sciences, a social group is 2 or more humans who interact with one some other, share like characteristics, and have a collective sense of unity. This is a very broad definition, as it includes groups of all sizes, from dyads to whole societies. A lodge tin can be viewed every bit a large group, though near social groups are considerably smaller. Society can likewise be viewed equally people who interact with one some other, sharing similarities pertaining to civilization and territorial boundaries.

A social group exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals, such every bit people waiting at a passenger vehicle stop or people waiting in a line. Characteristics shared by members of a group may include interests, values, representations, ethnic or social groundwork, and kinship ties. One manner of determining if a drove of people can be considered a group is if individuals who belong to that collection utilize the self-referent pronoun "nosotros;" using "nosotros" to refer to a collection of people ofttimes implies that the collection thinks of itself as a group. Examples of groups include: families, companies, circles of friends, clubs, local chapters of fraternities and sororities, and local religious congregations.

Renowned social psychologist Muzafer Sherif formulated a technical definition of a social grouping. It is a social unit consisting of a number of individuals interacting with each other with respect to:

1. common motives and goals;
2. an accepted division of labor;
3. established status relationships;
4. accustomed norms and values with reference to matters relevant to the group; and
5. the evolution of accepted sanctions, such as enhance and punishment, when norms were respected or violated.

Explicitly contrasted with a social cohesion-based definition for social groups is the social identity perspective, which draws on insights fabricated in social identity theory. The social identity approach posits that the necessary and sufficient conditions for the germination of social groups is "sensation of a mutual category membership" and that a social group can be "usefully conceptualized as a number of individuals who take internalized the same social category membership as a component of their self concept. " Stated otherwise, while the social cohesion arroyo expects group members to ask "who am I attracted to? " the social identity perspective expects group members to simply ask "who am I? "

Social Identity Approach: The explanatory profiles of social identity and self-categorization theories.

Law Enforcement Officials: A law enforcement official is a social category, non a group. However, law enforcement officials who all work in the same station and regularly meet to plan their day and work together would be considered function of a group.

Primary Groups

A primary group is typically a minor social group whose members share shut, personal, indelible relationships.

Learning Objectives

List at to the lowest degree iii defining characteristics of a main grouping

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Primary groups are marked by concern for 1 another, shared activities and civilization, and long periods of time spent together. They are psychologically comforting and quite influential in developing personal identity.
• Families and close friends are examples of chief groups.
• The goal of principal groups is actually the relationships themselves rather than achieving another purpose.
• The concept of the primary group was introduced past Charles Cooley in his volume, Social Organization : A Study of the Larger Heed.

Key Terms

• Close friends: They are examples of main groups.
• grouping: A number of things or persons being in some relation to one some other.
• relationship: Connection or association; the condition of being related.

Sociologists distinguish betwixt two types of groups based upon their characteristics. A principal group is typically a small social group whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships. These groups are marked by concern for one another, shared activities and civilization, and long periods of fourth dimension spent together. The goal of primary groups is actually the relationships themselves rather than achieving some other purpose. Families and shut friends are examples of primary groups.

Charles Cooley

The concept of the primary grouping was introduced past Charles Cooley, a sociologist from the Chicago Schoolhouse of folklore, in his book Social Arrangement: A Study of the Larger Heed (1909). Primary groups play an important role in the development of personal identity. Cooley argued that the impact of the primary group is then great that individuals cling to principal ideals in more complex associations and even create new chief groupings within formal organizations. To that extent, he viewed society equally a constant experiment in enlarging social experience and in coordinating multifariousness. He, therefore, analyzed the operation of such complex social forms as formal institutions and social class systems and the subtle controls of public opinion.

Functions of Main Groups

A primary group is a group in which 1 exchanges implicit items, such equally dearest, caring, concern, support, etc. Examples of these would exist family groups, dear relationships, crunch support groups, and church groups. Relationships formed in master groups are ofttimes long lasting and goals in themselves. They too are often psychologically comforting to the individuals involved and provide a source of support and encouragement.

Charles Cooley: The concept of the primary group was introduced by Charles Cooley, a sociologist from the Chicago School of sociology, in his volume, "Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Heed" (1909).

Families every bit Social Groups: This family unit from the 1970s would be an case of a primary group.

Secondary Groups

Secondary groups are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal oriented; their relationships are temporary.

Learning Objectives

Outline the main distinctions between primary and secondary groups

Cardinal Takeaways

Central Points

• The distinction between main and secondary groups was originally proposed past Charles Cooley. He termed them "secondary" because they generally develop afterwards in life and are much less likely to be influential on one's identity than master groups.
• Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another. In contrast to master groups, secondary groups don't have the goal of maintaining and developing the relationships themselves.
• Secondary groups include groups in which one exchanges explicit commodities, such as labor for wages, services for payments, and such. They besides include academy classes, able-bodied teams, and groups of co-workers.

Central Terms

• primary group: Information technology is typically a small social grouping whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships. These groups are marked by concern for ane another, shared activities and civilization, and long periods of fourth dimension spent together.
• group: A number of things or persons being in some relation to i another.
• Secondary groups: They are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal-oriented.

Unlike first groups, secondary groups are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal oriented. People in a secondary grouping collaborate on a less personal level than in a primary group, and their relationships are generally temporary rather than long lasting. Some secondary groups may final for many years, though near are brusque term. Such groups too begin and end with very fiddling significance in the lives of the people involved.

Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another. In contrast to primary groups, secondary groups don't have the goal of maintaining and developing the relationships themselves.

Charles Cooley

The stardom between primary and secondary groups was originally proposed by Charles Cooley. He labeled groups as "primary" because people often feel such groups early in their life and such groups play an important role in the development of personal identity. Secondary groups generally develop later in life and are much less likely to exist influential on one's identity.

Functions

Since secondary groups are established to perform functions, people'southward roles are more interchangeable. A secondary group is i you have chosen to be a part of. They are based on interests and activities. They are where many people can run into close friends or people they would just call acquaintances. Secondary groups are also groups in which one exchanges explicit bolt, such every bit labor for wages, services for payments, etc. Examples of these would exist employment, vendor-to-client relationships, a doctor, a mechanic, an accountant, and such. A university class, an athletic team, and workers in an part all likely class secondary groups. Primary groups can form within secondary groups as relationships become more personal and shut.

Classmates as Secondary Groups: A class of students is more often than not considered a secondary group.

Doctors equally Secondary Groups: The doctor-patient relationship is another example of secondary groups.

In-Groups and Out-Groups

In-groups are social groups to which an private feels he or she belongs, while an private doesn't identify with the out-group.

Learning Objectives

Recollect two of the key features of in-group biases toward out-groups

Primal Takeaways

Central Points

• In- group favoritism refers to a preference and analogousness for 1's in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group.
• One of the cardinal determinants of group biases is the need to better cocky-esteem. That is individuals will observe a reason, no thing how insignificant, to bear witness to themselves why their grouping is superior.
• Intergroup aggression is any beliefs intended to harm another person, considering he or she is a member of an out-group, the behavior being viewed past its targets as undesirable.
• The out-grouping homogeneity effect is one's perception of out-grouping members as more similar to one some other than are in-group members (e.g., "they are akin; we are diverse").
• Prejudice is a hostile or negative mental attitude toward people in a distinct group, based solely on their membership within that group.
• A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to well-nigh all members of the group, regardless of bodily variation amidst the members.

Key Terms

• in-group bias: It refers to a preference and analogousness for 1's in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-grouping.
• Intergroup aggression: Information technology is whatsoever behavior intended to harm another person considering he or she is a member of an out-group, the beliefs being viewed by its targets as undesirable.
• In-group favoritism: It refers to a preference and analogousness for one's in-grouping over the out-grouping, or anyone viewed every bit outside the in-group. This tin can be expressed in evaluation of others, linking, allocation of resource and many other means.

In sociology and social psychology, in-groups and out-groups are social groups to which an individual feels as though he or she belongs as a member, or towards which they feel contempt, opposition, or a desire to compete, respectively. People tend to hold positive attitudes towards members of their ain groups, a phenomenon known as in-group bias. The term originates from social identity theory which grew out of the work of social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner.

Henri Tajfel: The in-grouping and out-group concepts originate from social identity theory, which grew out of the piece of work of social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner.

In-group favoritism refers to a preference and analogousness for one's in-group over the out-group or anyone viewed equally outside the in-group. This tin be expressed in evaluation of others, linking, allocation of resources, and many other ways. A primal notion in understanding in-group/out-group biases is determining the psychological mechanism that drives the bias. One of the central determinants of grouping biases is the need to meliorate cocky-esteem. That is individuals will find a reason, no matter how insignificant, to prove to themselves why their grouping is superior.

Intergroup aggression is any behavior intended to harm some other person considering he or she is a member of an out grouping. Intergroup aggression is a by production of in-grouping bias, in that if the beliefs of the in-grouping are challenged or if the in-group feels threatened, then they volition limited aggression toward the out-grouping. The major motive for intergroup assailment is the perception of a conflict of interest betwixt in-group and out-group. The way the aggression is justified is through dehumanizing the out-grouping, because the more the out-group is dehumanized the "less they deserve the humane handling enjoined by universal norms. "

French Stereotypes: Prejudice is similar to stereotype in that a stereotype is a generalization virtually a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the grouping, regardless of bodily variation among the members.

The out-group homogeneity effect is 1'due south perception of out-group members as more like to ane another than are in-group members, east.g. "they are alike; nosotros are diverse. " The out-grouping homogeneity issue has been found using a broad diversity of different social groups, from political and racial groups to age and gender groups. Perceivers tend to have impressions nigh the diversity or variability of group members around those central tendencies or typical attributes of those grouping members. Thus, out-group stereotypicality judgments are overestimated, supporting the view that out-group stereotypes are over-generalizations In an experiment testing out-group homogeneity, researchers revealed that people of other races are perceived to expect more alike than members of i'southward own race. When white students were shown faces of a few white and a few black individuals, they afterward more accurately recognized white faces they had seen and ofttimes falsely recognized blackness faces not seen before. The opposite results were constitute when subjects consisted of black individuals.

Prejudice is a hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinct grouping, based solely on their membership within that grouping. In that location are iii components. The first is the melancholia component, representing both the blazon of emotion linked with the attitude and the severity of the attitude. The second is a cognitive component, involving beliefs and thoughts that make upwards the attitude. The third is a behavioral component, relating to one's actions – people do non just hold attitudes, they act on them besides. Prejudice primarily refers to a negative attitude about others, although one can also have a positive prejudice in favor of something. Prejudice is similar to stereotype in that a stereotype is a generalization most a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of bodily variation amid the members.

Reference Groups

Sociologists call any grouping that individuals use every bit a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior a reference group.

Learning Objectives

Explain the purpose of a reference group

Central Takeaways

Key Points

• Social comparison theory argues that individuals use comparisons with others to proceeds accurate cocky-evaluations and learn how to ascertain the self. A reference grouping is a concept referring to a group to which an individual or another group is compared.
• Reference groups provide the benchmarks and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics.
• Robert G. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the individual aspires.

Key Terms

• self-identity: a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual'southward perception of "self" in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics and non academics, gender roles and sexuality, racial identity,and many others.
• social function: it is a set of connected behaviors, rights, and obligations as conceptualized by actors in a social state of affairs.
• reference group: it is a concept referring to a group to which an individual or some other group is compared.

Social comparing theory is centered on the conventionalities that at that place is a bulldoze inside individuals to gain accurate self-evaluations. Individuals evaluate their own opinions and define the self by comparing themselves to others. One important concept in this theory is the reference group. A reference group refers to a group to which an private or some other group is compared. Sociologists call any group that individuals employ as a standard for evaluating themselves and their ain behavior a reference group.

Reference groups are used in guild to evaluate and determine the nature of a given individual or other group's characteristics and sociological attributes. It is the group to which the individual relates or aspires to relate himself or herself psychologically. Reference groups become the private's frame of reference and source for ordering his or her experiences, perceptions, cognition, and ideas of cocky. It is important for determining a person'southward self-identity, attitudes, and social ties. These groups become the basis of reference in making comparisons or contrasts and in evaluating i's appearance and performance.

Robert K. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social function to which the private aspires. Reference groups act every bit a frame of reference to which people always refer to evaluate their achievements, their role performance, aspirations and ambitions. A reference grouping tin can either be from a membership group or not-membership group.

An example of a reference grouping is a group of people who have a certain level of affluence. For example, an private in the U.South. with an almanac income of $fourscore,000, may consider himself affluent if he compares himself to those in the heart of the income strata, who earn roughly $32,000 a twelvemonth. If, withal, the same person considers the relevant reference group to be those in the top 0.1% of households in the U.Southward., those making $one.half dozen one thousand thousand or more, so the individual's income of $fourscore,000 would make him or her seem rather poor.

Reference group: Reference groups provide the benchmarks and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics.

Reference group: Reference groups become the individual's frame of reference and source for ordering his or her experiences, perceptions, cognition, and ideas of self.

Social Networks

A social network is a social structure between actors, connecting them through various social familiarities.

Learning Objectives

Diagram, in miniature, your social networks using nodes and ties

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• The study of social networks is chosen both "social network analysis" and "social network theory ".
• Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships betwixt the actors.
• In sociology, social capital is the expected collective or economical benefits derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation between individuals and groups.
• The dominion of 150 states that the size of a genuine social network is limited to about 150 members.
• The small earth phenomenon is the hypothesis that the chain of social acquaintances required to connect one arbitrary person to another arbitrary person anywhere in the world is generally short.
• Milgram also identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an private who is recognized from regular activities, but with whom one does not interact.
• Milgram also identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an individual who is recognized from regular activities, but with whom one does not collaborate.

Key Terms

• node: They are the individual actors inside the networks, and ties are the relationships betwixt the actors.
• social capital: The good will, sympathy, and connections created past social interaction within and between social networks.

A social network is a social structure betwixt actors, either individuals or organizations. It indicates the ways in which they are connected through various social familiarities, ranging from coincidental acquaintance to close familial bonds. The study of social networks is chosen both "social network analysis" and "social network theory. " Research in a number of academic fields has demonstrated that social networks operate on many levels, from families upward to the level of nations, and play a critical role in determining the manner problems are solved, organizations are run, and the degree to which individuals succeed in achieving their goals. Sociologists are interested in social networks considering of their influence on and importance for the private. Social networks are the basic tools used by individuals to come across other people, recreate, and to find social support.

Social Network Illustration: An example of a social network diagram

Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors. There tin be many kinds of ties between the nodes. In its near simple grade, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties betwixt the nodes being studied. The network tin also be used to determine the social capital of individual actors. In sociology, social capital is the expected collective or economic benefits derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation between individuals and groups.

The rule of 150 states that the size of a genuine social network is express to nearly 150 members. The rule arises from cross-cultural studies in sociology and peculiarly anthropology of the maximum size of a village. The small world phenomenon is the hypothesis that the chain of social acquaintances required to connect one capricious person to some other arbitrary person anywhere in the world is by and large curt. The concept gave rise to the famous phrase "six degrees of separation" afterward a 1967 minor world experiment past psychologist Stanley Milgram that constitute that two random U.S. citizens were continued past an boilerplate of six acquaintances. Milgram also identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an individual who is recognized from regular activities, but with whom one does not interact. Somebody who is seen daily on the train or at the gym, but with whom i does not otherwise communicate, is an example of a familiar stranger. If such individuals meet in an unfamiliar setting, for example, while travelling, they are more likely to introduce themselves than would perfect strangers, since they accept a groundwork of shared experiences.

Studies

Recent research suggests that the social networks of Americans are shrinking, and more and more people take no close confidants or people with whom they tin can share their most intimate thoughts. In 1985, the mean network size of individuals in the United states was 2.94 people. Networks declined by almost an entire confidant by 2004, to 2.08 people. Near half, 46.iii% of Americans, say they have only one or no confidants with whom they can hash out important matters. The most oft occurring response to the question of how many confidants one has was cipher in 2004.

Online Communities

On the Internet, social interactions can occur in online communities that preclude the demand to exist face-to-face.

Learning Objectives

Discuss at least three central features of online communities

Fundamental Takeaways

Key Points

• An online customs is a virtual customs that exists online and whose members enable its existence through taking part in membership rituals.
• An online community can take the grade of an data arrangement where anyone can postal service content, such as a bulletin lath organization or one where only a restricted number of people tin initiate posts, such as Weblogs.
• Cost plays a role in all aspects and stages for online communities. Fairly inexpensive and easily attainable technologies and programs have too influenced the increase in institution of online communities.

Key Terms

• information system: Whatever data processing organization, either manual or computerized
• Online communities: It is a virtual community that exists online and whose members enable its beingness through taking part in membership ritual.
• weblog: A website in the class of an ongoing journal; a blog.

An online community is a virtual community that exists online and whose members enable its existence through taking function in membership rituals. An online community can have the form of an information organisation where anyone tin post content, such every bit a message board system or one where only a restricted number of people can initiate posts, such every bit Weblogs. Online communities have as well become a supplemental form of communication between people who know each other primarily in real life. Many means are used in social software separately or in combination, including text-based chat rooms and forums that use voice, video text, or avatars.

The Development of Online Communities

The idea of a customs is not a new concept. What is new, however, is transferring it over into the online globe. A community was previously divers as a group from a single location. If you lot lived in the designated area, you became a part of that community. Interaction between community members was done primarily face-to-face and in a social setting. This definition for community no longer applies. In the online world, social interactions no longer have to be face-to-face or based on proximity. Instead, they tin can be with literally anyone, anywhere. There is a set of values to consider when developing an online community. Some of these values include: opportunity, instruction, civilization, commonwealth, human services, equality within the economy, data, sustainability, and communication.

Cost plays a role in all aspects and stages for online communities. Adequately cheap and hands attainable technologies and programs take besides influenced the increase in establishment of online communities. While payment is necessary to participate in some online communities, such as certain dating websites or for monthly game subscriptions, many other sites are costless to users such as the social networks Facebook and Twitter. Because of deregulation and increased Internet access, the popularity of online communities has escalated. Online communities provide instant gratification, entertainment, and learning.

Building Online Communities

Every online community has a distinct gear up of members who participate differently. A lurker observes the customs and viewing content, but does non add together to the community content or give-and-take. A novice engages the community, starts to provide content, and tentatively interacts in a few discussions. A regular consistently adds to the community give-and-take and content and interacts with other users. A leader is recognized as a veteran participant, connecting with regulars to make higher concepts and ideas. Finally, an elder leaves the community for a diversity of reasons. For case, the elderberry might feel a change in interests or lack the time to stay connected.

Studies

In 2001, consultants at McKinsey & Company did a study where they institute that only 2% of transaction site customers returned later their first buy. In contrast, threescore% of new online communities users began using and visiting the sites regularly afterwards their first experiences. Online communities have changed the game for retail firms, as they accept forced them to modify their business organization strategies.

Facebook: While payment is necessary to participate in some online communities, such as certain dating websites or for monthly game subscriptions, many other sites are free to users such equally social networks Facebook and Twitter.

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